Training and testing parameters in formation of stimulus equivalence: methodological issues

Research on stimulus equivalence has been prominent for more than 40 years in behavior analysis. The present article will focus on issues related to methodological considerations in stimulus equivalence research. An introduction to stimulus equivalence is provided, followed by a discussion of parameters in training conditional discriminations and testing for the emergence of equivalence classes. Some issues related to different training structures, the use of instructions, simultaneous versus delayed matching to sample, the role of familiar stimuli, response requirements for the sample stimulus, and criteria for (a) defining responding in accordance with equivalence and (b) establishing conditional discrimination are discussed in more detai

Training structures and the formation of equivalence classes

Different training structures have produced different outcomes of equivalence yields when using a simultaneous training protocol. According to the discrimination analysis by R. R. Saunders and Green (1999), the number of simple discriminations required in conditional discrimination differs for the different training structures. Hence, for the MTO (many-to-one) structure, all the simple discriminations are required during training of the conditional discriminations, while they are not in the OTM (one-to-many) or LS (linear series) training structures. The differences in the number of discriminations will be greater when the number of members in the classes increases; thus, there should be a more pronounced difference in the outcome on equivalence tests. The purpose of the present experiment was to train 3 potential classes of 3 members each and 3 potential classes of 6 members each with MTO, OTM, and LS training structures. Thirty adult participants were randomly assigned to 6 groups, that is, 3 or 6 members with MTO, OTM, or LS. The results showed that there were small differences in the outcome following MTO or OTM. However, the equivalence outcome was lowest following the LS training structure. The data from the follow-up tests showed that none of the participants in the LS groups responded in accordance with stimulus equivalence, while 6 of 10 did so in the OTM groups and 3 of 8 did in the MTO groups. Moreover, the reaction time data showed that there was an increase from directly trained trials to the symmetry and equivalence trials, with a more pronounced increase for equivalence trial

Single-subject withdrawal designs in delayed matching-to-sample procedures

In most studies of delayed matching-to-sample (DMTS) and stimulus equivalence, the delay has remained fixed throughout a single experimental condition. We wanted to expand on the DMTS and stimulus equivalence literature by examining the effects of using titrating delays with different starting points during the establishment of conditional discriminations prerequisite for stimulus equivalence. In Experiment 1, a variation of a single-subject withdrawal design was used. Ten adults were exposed to one condition where the delay titrated between 0 and 3000 ms and another condition where the delay varied from 5000 to 8000 ms. Subsequently, participants were re-exposed to the condition they had first experienced. Results show that starting the titration of the delay at 5000 ms may have had a facilitatory effect on stimulus equivalence responding for some participants. For several participants, however, performance was stable throughout the experiment, apparently not affected by either the variations of the starting point of the titrating delay or by previous exposure to stimulus equivalence training and test procedures. In Experiment 2, we examined the effects of being exposed to the same stimulus equivalence procedure three times, again with adults as participants. Results show that such extended exposure had very limited effects on stimulus equivalence responding. This indicates that single-subject withdrawal designs may be an appropriate approach for studying stimulus equivalenc

Sentrale variabler i forståelsen av spilleavhengighet

Spilleavhengighet er et sterkt voksende fenomen. Det gjør at behovet for å forstå forhold som påvirker spilleavhengighet er viktig. I denne artikkelen diskuteres det atferdsanalytiske perspektivet i forståelsen av spilleavhengighet. Atferdsanalyse innebærer en vitenskapelig tilnærming til analyse av atferd der en søker å finne relasjonelle forhold mellom atferd og miljøbetingelser. Variabler som forsterkningsskjemaer, overtroisk atferd og illusjon av kontroll, det å utsette konsekvenser og delayed discounting, verbal atferd, overføring av stimulusfunksjoner er relevante i forståelse av spilleavhengighet. For eksempel vurderes verbal atferd og regelstyrt atferd som særs vesentlig i etableringen og opprettholdelsen av overdreven spilling. Eksperimentelle prosedyrer der en studerer verbal atferd blir diskutert. I forhold til verbal atferd diskuteres også protokollanalyse med "tenk høyt" prosedyren. Denne prosedyren kan være et nyttig redskap for å undersøke selvgenererte regler hos spilleavhengige personer. På tross av at det eksisterer en solid kunnskap om spilleavhengighet som er bygd på empiriske studier, mener forfatterne at spilleavhengighet bør være et interessant forskningsområde for atferdsanalytikere.Gambling is a growing problem in the world, therefore, it is important to understand the variables that affect gambling. The present article will discuss the behavior analytic perspective, which has a scientific approach to the understanding of behavior and attempts to find the functional relationships between the behavior and other relevant environmental conditions. Variables such as reinforcement schedules, different verbal operants, transfer of stimulusfunctions, delayed consequences, delayed discounting, and superstition illusion of control seem to be important in the understanding of gambling behavior. The role of verbal behavior and rule-governed behavior are specifically discussed as central components of the establishment and maintenance of excessive gambling. Experimental procedures in the study verbal behavior are discussed along with the protocol analysis with the “think aloud” procedure, a procedure that seems to be useful for the study of self-generated rules in people with gambling problems. In spite of the existence of general empirical and cumulative knowledge about the development of gambling behaviour, the authors argue that gambling should be a relevant focus of research for behavior analysts

On the role of trial types in tests for stimulus equivalence

Some studies which have shown that differences in outcome on tests for stimulus equivalence dependent on different training structures, have run the tests as separate blocks without baseline trials interspersed in between test trials. Saunders and co-workers have argued that the differences in test outcome could be related to differences in the retention of trained discriminations during testing (R. R. Saunders, Drake, & Spradlin, 1999; R. R. Saunders & Green, 1999). In the current experiment, 20 adult participants were taught conditional relations by employing a linear series training structure. Following this training, non-reinforced trials of the directly trained relations were randomly interspersed in a mixed test for symmetry, transitivity, and global equivalence. After being exposed to the training procedure once, 17 of the participants did not perform in accord with stimulus equivalence, but 9 of these participants still responded in accord with the directly trained relations. After being exposed to the training procedure again, 10 participants still did not respond in accord with stimulus equivalence, while 7 out of these did respond consistent with the directly trained relations. This indicates that a “destroyed” baseline could not be responsible for these participants’ failure to respond in accord with stimulus equivalence. In addition the reaction time between the appearance of comparison stimuli and subsequent responding during the test were recorded. Data show that the average reaction time varies as a function of which type of relation that is presented. There were also distinct differences in reaction time patterns for those participants who responded in accord with stimulus equivalence compared to those not responding in such a manne

Treatment of Compulsive Gambling

A program for treatment of compulsive gambling is presented. The participant in the study was a 27-year old teacher. Before the treatment started he spent about $3.700 a month and his debt because of gambling was 60 000 dollars. The procedure included different parts; self-recording, establishment of alternative and incompatible behavior, relapse prevention and restrictions in access to money. To ensure that it was not the prevention from the access to money that stopped the use of money spent on gambling, thus, a couple of days every month participant had access to a certain amount of money. After the start of the treatment he has not lost or spent any money on gambling for nearly two years

On Motivating Operations at the Point of Online Purchase Setting

Consumer behavior analysis can be applied over a wide range of economic topics in which the main focus is the contingencies that influence the behavior of the economic agent. This paper provides an overview on the work that has been done on the impact from motivating operations at the point of online purchase situation. Motivating operations, a behavior analytic formulation of motivation is defined as any environmental event that (a) establishes (or abolishes) the reinforcing or punishing effect of another event and (b) evokes (or abates) behavior related to that event. Our conclusion is that the concept of motivating operations has two advantages. First, it provides understanding about the impact from observable environmental stimuli to consumers' purchases in an online situation. Second, the concept is designed specifically to facilitate intervention as it is formulated in terms of behavior-environmental relations that can be manipulated directly. Accordingly, findings derived using the concept of motivating operations can be more immediately applied to the design of the company's Web site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR

Training conditional discriminations with fixed and titrated delayed matching to sample in children

In a series of experiments, we investigated the effects of delayed matching-to-sample (DMTS) on responding in accordance with stimulus equivalence in children. In Experiment 1, 20 participants were assigned to either 3 s or 6 s DMTS. The overall outcome showed high yields of derived responding but did not support a superiority of longer delays seen in some studies with adults. In Experiment 2, we arranged 3 s and 6 s titrating delayed matching-to-sample (TDMTS) procedures to see whether a gradual adjustment of delays based on participants’ performance would be more effective in establishing the conditional discriminations and responding in accordance with stimulus equivalence. The results showed that fixed delays were most effective. In Experiment 3, ten participants experienced TDMTS from 1.5 to 3 s. This procedure facilitated the establishment of AC trials in initial training but did not reduce the overall number of trials required to establish baseline discriminations or affect responding in accordance with stimulus equivalence. The results are discussed in light of results obtained with adults, stimulus control involved in simultaneous and delayed matching, and precurrent behavior

Reflections on historical and future aspects of behavior analysis

The Norwegian Association of Behavior Analysis celebrated its 40th anniversary in 2013. At the annual meeting, we arranged a symposium on the historical and future trends in behavior analysis. Ten people agreed to be part of a panel in this symposium. The panel included national and international behavior analysts, both senior and younger behavior analysts and students within the field. The panel members were given 13 questions beforehand so they could prepare their answers. Two of the questions were mandatory, but they could choose three additional questions to answer. The panel members presented a variety of important areas to which behavior analysis has contributed and addressed some of the future impacts behavior analysis may have on society. The panelists’ presentations are written as arguments we found to be the most interesting and is not meant to be a direct reproduction of their statements. In the discussion section, we highlight two important areas based on the statements raised by the panelists. Hence, we argue that behavior analysis has great potential and that it is important to improve the interdisciplinary perspective. In conclusion, we suggest some further actions that can be done in time to come